The Role Women Play in the 21st Century Home and Gender Equality: A Literature Review

Sarah M. Dyson, MS, PhD and Lisa Woodruff

Abstract

Over the past 50 years, gender roles in the home have not changed significantly, yet environmental and technological factors have drastically changed. Women are still considered the primary caregiver and homemaker; however, their responsibilities, roles, and tasks have increased across the board. Although the roles of women of the 21st century have not changed, the gender dynamics in modern homes have radically transformed.

Research suggests that women working outside of the home have a negative emotional spillover into both work and home life. The negativity has contributed to a time squeeze leaving women little time to be productive at home. Negative emotions have also been found among women who engage in entrepreneurial ventures and multiple social responsibilities while maintaining in-home organization. This literature review is structured according to four main topics: (1) the overlap of cueing, goal setting, goal-attainment, and responsibilities of women in the 21st century home, (2) roles, and expectations of the 21st-century woman, (3) women of the 21st century and connections between homemakers and entrepreneurs, (4) proposal of a future research agenda based on the same topics and classification of analysis

Keywords: self-regulation, women at home in the United States, coping skills, gender inequality, family, goal setting for women, organization, entrepreneur, gender equality

During the last half-century, women have been working out of the home, yet women have never stopped being the primary caregivers and homemakers. The characteristics of modern households have changed drastically since the 1970s. Huffman, Matthews, and Irving (2017) and Rose (2017) noted that gender inequality in the home is still prevalent today. Gender roles defined in the 1950s and 1960s depict women as the primary homemaker. Women were both dependent on and inferior to men, and their primary job was to be pleasing to their husband and tend to their house and children. During the end of WWII the U.S. population increased by 42 percent while the number of widows grew by 45 percent. The U.S department of labor identified 15 million women as being potentially or becoming displaced (Irving 2017 & Levenstein 2014). Media described displaced homemakers as “a generation of women on whom the rules have been changed” and who were “caught between yesterday’s pedestal and tomorrow’s self-sufficiency” (Levenstein 2014). The US Department of Labor estimated that more than one million mothers joined the work force every year between 1970 and 1978 (Levenstein, 2014). During the late 70s and 80s the role of women evolved due to various feminist movements changing the way women were viewed. However, Levenstein (2014) identified problems of inequality between gender roles within the home and work life balance that employed mothers and working families are facing today. Various media sources such as radio, tv, magazine and newspapers continued to convey and propagate societal beliefs and expectations regarding the roles of women and men. Levenstein (2014) and Sears et al. (2016) agreed the ramifications of home and work tasks are fundamentally different; however, the overlaps of physical task, psychological awareness, and productive labor thatenable the functioning of the family are similar.

Researchers suggest that the female homemaker focuses on non-market work such as housework, in-home organization, and tasks of daily living such as paying bills, doing the laundry, and childcare (Kamp Dush, Yavorsky, & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2018). Several strategies have been employed to successfully organize, achieve goals, and increase productivity in the home. Yet researchers Huffman, Matthews, and Irving (2017), Jang, Zippay, and Park (2012), and Rose (2017) explained that tension, stress, and anxiety increase emotional spillovers into the home, therefore reducing a woman’s productive time at home. Additionally, researchers Sears, Repetti, Robles, and Reynolds (2016) concluded that home and work spillovers, as well as increased responsibilities related to specific tasks, caused women to complete more tasks while at work and leave the tasks at home undone or incomplete. In contrast, men of the household perceive these endeavors to be more of a hobby that can be started and stopped at any time. The term spillover or negative emotional spillover refers to feelings of frustration, anger, or disappointment at work that lead to greater irritability and impatience while at home (Repetti & Wood, 1997).

The present literature review integrates gender imbalances in the home with home organization, productivity, and time management. The following sections will explore gender inequality in the 21st century home, viewed through the lens of self-regulation as it relates to goal setting. Factors addressed in the following review will contribute to the existing knowledge and evaluate gaps in the current literature. The selected literature will explore self-regulation strategies of goal attainment as it relates to goal setting. Subsequently, an exploration of gender imbalances in the home will highlight current perceptions of gender. Finally, a discussion will follow based on recommendations and proposed solutions for female homemakers and entrepreneurs. Gaps identified throughout the research are addressed in the section on future research and, finally, a discussion of the recommended solutions will be proposed by researchers.

Cueing, Goal setting, Goal-attainment and Responsibilities of Women
in the 21st Century Home

Although self-regulation is normative, it extends beyond the typical description or deductive theory of phenomena. This is due to the theoretical mechanisms throughout which strategies influence and empower individuals (Bendell, Sullivan, & Marvel 2019). Self-regulation theory consists of several components that individuals cultivate to encourage constructive behaviors aimed at goal attainment while eliminating or decreasing destructive behaviors that may hinder achievement goals. Business managers and owners have used self-regulating strategies to ensure career progression. Researchers Cerrato and Cifre (2018) and Rose (2017) indicated that men had utilized self-regulation components to advance their careers and heighten their performance in sports competitions. Researchers have postulated that by incorporating goal-setting, self-regulation, and self-cueing in the 21st-century home, homemakers could have positive effects on home organization, tasks of daily living, and project completion (Bendell et al., 2019).

Self-cueing consists of creating a list, notes, and reminders, focusing on attention, and redirecting patterns of behavior. These external cues serve as a compelling reminders to keep one’s attention and effort focused on desirable actives that lead to goals or successful outcomes (Oettingen, Hönig, & Gollwitzer, 2000). Moreover, self-cueing can act as an effective means of tracking one’s progress or identifying tasks that need completion. Similarly, self-dialogue is a strategy, also referred to as self-talk, that increases self-efficacy or self-confidence, leading to effective self-regulation and increased performance (Carver & Scheier, 1998). Self-dialogue consists of a person telling themselves out loud or in their head what they have chosen to believe. Through repeated dialogue beliefs and assumptions become internalized and eventually automatically influence one’s information processing system. Successful self-dialogue can lead one to facilitate opportunities and persistence in the face of obstacles. Furthermore, researchers suggest that women of the 21st century should attempt to incorporate more tactics like self-cueing and self-dialogue to promote success throughout their daily lives. Bendell et al. (2019), Cerrato and Cifre (2018), and Rose (2017) suggested that women in the 21st century are more likely to not establish a positive self-dialogue, which contributed to the demise of goal setting and goal attainment.

Goal–setting provides specific strategies for managing one's behavior (Bendell et al., 2019). Individuals who exhibit vital self-goal-setting behaviors can incorporate cognitive and behavioral techniques, which allow them to evaluate a goal with more understanding and to assess the suitability of the motivation behind the goal-setting process (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). Consequently, individuals who assume sub-optimal goal-setting behaviors reach inferior outcomes.

Successful goal attainment is the process of completing two different tasks; first, people must turn their desires into binding goals. Second, they must attain the set goals (Oettingen et al., 2000). Both tasks require self-regulation strategies to process and facilitate practical goal setting and successful goal striving. Researchers Cerrato and Cifre (2018), Kotlar and De Massis (2013), and Rose (2017) determined that goal attainment is challenging within the home if members of the household do not support the one who has proposed or set the goal. Goal attainment within the home is primarily regulated or formulated by female homemakers and not by men.

(Cerrato and Cifre 2018; De Massis et al., 2018). Researchers Kotlar and De Massis (2013) concluded that men who support the goal but not the process to obtain the goal tend to fail or never get started on the goal related to the household. In contrast, goal setting in an organization lends itself to teamwork and achievement-mindedness.

Goal setting within an organization is a vital function through which individual goals are transformed. Organizational goals are set and attained through teamwork, collaboration, and a similar mindset. However, goal setting within the home related to home organization, maintenance, and daily living has become problematic. Bendell et al. (2019) and Williams et al. (2018) noted that goal setting was not always problematic; problems originated over the past 30 years as responsibilities increased and priorities shifted from home to work. Williams et al. (2018) and Sears et al. (2016) agreed that work overloads expressed in negative moods and behaviors resulted in lack of communication in the home.

Kotlar and De Massis (2013) suggested that some family members do not have the same priorities or similar desires to improve daily living. Cerrato and Cifre (2018) and Rose (2017) found this coincides with miscommunication, time mismanagement, and organizational disparities within the home. Similar to miscommunications within organizations, the same types of errors occur in the home that can negatively impact goal setting and goal attainment.

 For example, family actives are likely to be more complicated due to unique interactions between close and distant family members (Kotlar & De Massis, 2013). Family-centered goals play a significant role in determining and formulating organizational objectives. Kotlar and De Massis (2013) explained that the relationship between family involvement and the adoption of family centered goals is problematic due to the mediation and moderation of several family factors. Factors such as family roles, family member participation, and individual goals challenge the goal’s attainment (Kotlar & De Massis, 2013). Even when a mother strategizes to increase available time effectively, Rose (2017) noted that this does not reduce time pressure, thereby leaving her goals to be unattainable at times.

Cerrato and Cifre (2018) noted that women perceive lower involvement of their male partners in household chores than men do (N=515, 1.8 and 2.8, respectively; F = 22.70; p _ 001).  Women’s involvement in household chores was more than twice that of men (N=515, 4.0 and 1.7, respectively; F = 82.60; p _ 001) (Cerrato and Cifre 2018). Finding sufficient time to meet work and family goals has posed immersive challenges for employed mothers in the 21st century. Goal setting among family members has continued to be the primary homemaker’s task over the past two decades, with little to no strategizing or support from other household members (Levenstein, 2014; Sears et al. 2016; & Rose 2017) .

Moreover, the traditional role of homemaker has remained female over the past few decades. Today’s female homemakers have more roles, responsibilities, and obligations than two centuries ago, yet Cerrato and Cifre (2018) discovered that gender roles have remained stagnant. The following section will introduce the role of 20th-century women in the home and 21st-century contemporary life as described by researchers today.

Roles, Responsibilities, and Expectations of 21st Century Women

The changing characteristics of both work and leisure consumption have been critical to women’s time and a requirement to multitask or complete tasks simultaneously has predominated (Southerton, 2003). Gender roles within the home have been predisposed to the traditional values carried over from the 1940s  to the 1970s. These roles consist of female homemakers planning and accomplishing the tasks of daily living such as grocery shopping, washing dishes and doing laundry, organizing the home, organizing routine maintenance on the home, child care, and working a full-time job. Research from the 1940s indicated that women have managed, planned and maintained goals within the home. Maloch and Deacon, (1970) and Dickins (1943) agreed that although men have similar management skills in the home, men lack the ability to make a decision, accomplish household tasks, or delegate appropriate task roles. Since the 1940s employment factors and equality for women have postulated positive changes; however gender roles in the home have not significantly changed. Household responsibilities, organization, and tasks of daily living remain the homemaker’s responsibility. Cerrato and Cifre (2018); Rose (2017); and Williams (2018) noted that when individuals experience conflict in gender roles it is primarily due to limited time, high levels of stress, and personal expectations.  Hences the fact that women spend twice as much time on chores has a strong negative impact on women’s adaptation to the role of homemaker. Cerrato and Cifre (2018) noted that women’s involvement in chores was more than twice that of men (N= 515 4.0 and 1.7, respectively; F = 82.60; p _ 001).

Researchers Southerton (2003) and Cerrato and Cifre (2018) agreed that tasks of daily living and the roles and responsibilities in the home are time-consuming and require, on average, 20 hours a week to complete. Although Southerton (2003) did not consider goal setting or goal attainment, Southerton noted home organization to be ongoing and unpredictable depending on the number of people in the home and household members’ support. Although some cultures still find these values to be the best for both partners, 21st century researchers have discovered a disparity in gender roles.

In general, men do not feel obligated to organize, maintain, or complete tasks of daily living as women do. Cerrato and Cifre (2018) noted that men tend to perceive house-related tasks, maintenance, and organization as a hobby or a free choice similar to shopping, cooking, washing dishes, washing clothes, and cleaning the house. This mindset is considered a cultural interpretation that women are more involved in in-house chores and do not want to share because of a belief that it is tied to gender identity, a source of power within the family dynamic. However, Rose (2017) explained that when mothers relinquish their partners’ and family responsibilities, they save five hours of unpaid work per week. An ongoing issue is that fathers or male partners usually work long hours outside the home, which is difficult to accommodate within work and family time (Rose, 2017). The problems of time pressure faced by female homemakers with caring responsibilities, including sole-earner mothers, have become concerning to researchers. Rose (2017) explained that juggling tasks and merging temporal boundaries degraded the quality of time for some women. This process changed the perceived pace of time and embodied the experience of time.

Sear, Repetti, Robles, and Reynolds (2016) defined an overloaded day as fast-paced, overwhelming, tiring, and demanding, related to employment, housework, and family responsibilities. Although marital behaviors change daily overload, overall tension and exposure to everyday stressors persisted across social contexts. Sear et al. (2016) reported the likelihood of anger and the disregard of a partner’s needs in response to overload. Although negative responses are less understood, they still play a vital role in goal setting, goal attainment, and tasks of daily living among 21st century women working in and out of the home. The subsequent response to overload, lack of energy, fatigue, exhaustion, and decreased household involvement has a significant adverse effect on women.

Overall resistance to change may contribute to the daily overload and contribute to the increased level of depression and anxiety. Southerton (2003) suggested that different orientations toward social practices are tied to social structure, particularly gender. This could contribute to time experiences and a further understanding of the structural changes that generate time and daily overload perceptions. Barigozzi, Creamer, and Roeder (2018) observed different gender patterns of career and childcare decisions through endogenously determined social norms. Furthermore, individual couples’ childcare and career decisions further impose an externality on couples so that the (female) labor market (Barigozzi et al., 2018). Zellweger, Kellermanns, Chrisman, and Chua (2011) agreed that some women experience a higher level of tension and anxiety when work demands prevent the completion of household responsibilities such as housework that goes sundown or delayed grocery shopping. 

Both men and women engage in leisure time on non-working days. Kamp Dush et al. (2018) explained that fathers engaged in 47% of their leisure time while mothers performed childcare and housework. In comparison, mothers engaged in 16% to 19% of their leisure time while fathers performed childcare and housework (Kamp Dush et al., 2018). Bendell et al. (2019) and Cerrato and Cifre (2018) agree that Gen Xers, or those born between 1980 and 2000, believe that both work and leisure time are equally important and strive to find an appropriate way to reconcile both aspects of their lives. This belief fostered in both partners a devotion to other areas of their life within the scope of non-work, such as family or productivity of greater importance. This understanding also facilitates the digital revolution and technologies for work, making workers less dependent on particular physical spaces and fixed schedules to perform their work albeit with similar goals and responsibilities.

Huffman et al. (2017) identified the importance of understanding gender ideology due to the misconceptions of the family system’s impact. Huffman et al. (2017) postulated individual family members as a family system rather than as individuals. Researchers find that understanding the family as a system rather than a domain further establishes the importance of responsibility, resources, management of daily stress, and productivity. Findings indicated that work-to-family conflict and spousal perception were related to both men and women in the home (Huffman et al., 2017). Furthermore, results suggested that men perceived themselves as under-benefiting from their investments in the family domain due to overload and spillovers from the family domain into their work life.

The individual’s perceptions of fairness are relevant in both the home and the workforce. Cohesive relationships are beneficial in both situations, which fosters self-goal-attainment. However, Huffman et al. (2017) noted that couples who strive for a more cohesive family tend to initiate strategies to increase fairness. In other words, couples who spent extra time communicating and planning home-oriented tasks obtained successful results and improved organization within their home.

Female Homemakers to Entrepreneurs

There has been substantial growth in female entrepreneurs over the past ten years. For some female employees, work demands can spill over, which affects family life negatively. These included lack of time to meet family obligations and increasing tension and stress at home (Jang, Zippay, & Park, 2012). Findings suggest that by establishing a predetermined path women entrepreneurs were less likely to have a successful outcome, whereas individuals who adopted a flexible schedule to endure stresses from home and work had a prolific and productive result.

Similarly, women with weak goal intention, which favors performance rather than behavior, failed to make conscious decisions to accomplish their goals, leading to dissatisfaction and unaccomplished goals (Bendell et al., 2019). Set plans and established self-cueing behaviors may, therefore, send female entrepreneurs down a  more successful path as compared to male entrepreneurs who maintain greater flexibility and adaptability. This logic echoes findings that indicate women are less likely to follow sequential steps in venture creation (Brush, 1990).

Therefore, women entrepreneurs may find it necessary to resort to other approaches to successfully develop self-regulation and self-goal-attainment. Bendel et al. (2019) and Zellweger et al. (2011) suggested that a homemaker’s role can make a female entrepreneur venture more complex by overlapping contemporary work and family demands. Communication and strategic planning incorporating self-regulation, and goal setting may benefit the female homemaker and decrease gender inequalities in the home.

Women have been battling the socio-culture, leaders who have been associated with masculinity assertiveness, competitiveness, and goal-focused deceives to change and act alone. Bendell et al. (2019) and Zellweger et al. (2011) agreed that negative work and family spillover have a more significant impact on women than men. Recently women have utilized flexible work practices; however, these processes have weakened relationships due to the limited amount of time parents spend with their children (Rose, 2017). Furthermore, Rose (2017) expressed concern regarding working mothers who implemented tools such as time squeezing. A mother who worked more intensively during certain times spent time with her children, thereby removing leisure, productive activities, and self-care time from their schedules.

 Gender impediments have affected both men and women in relation to self-regulation, self-goals-attainment, and self-leadership to achieve their innovation goals. Williams, Pieper, Kellermanns, and Astrachan (2018) explained that women are less likely to follow sequential steps in venture creation or in obtaining intellectual property. This finding emphasizes that all strategies are equally applicable or beneficial to all individuals within the family system.

Williams et al. (2018) indicated that self-leadership strategies such as self-regulation and self-goal-attainment could be learned and adjusted as needed. Furthermore, most businesses emphasize mentoring and coaching as part of their self-regulation effects. However, they are not considering gender differences when implementing goal attainment processes.

However, it is undoubtedly a positive starting point on which to build. Finally, gender differences in time pressure and work-life balance satisfaction will likely remain challenging social policy and practice issues to address in the future.

Future Research Agenda

There are several fractures to consider in furthering practical implications for female homemakers and female entrepreneurs. Bendell et al. (2019), Williams et al. (2018), and Zellweger et al. (2011) encourage future researchers to explore cognitive aspects that develop incremental goal setting, self-cueing, and goal attainment. Further evaluation of these concepts offers effective strategies in different circumstances, such as accomplishing the tasks of daily living, home organization among 21st-century women, female entrepreneurs experiencing spillover from work environments, and radical product innovations.

 Given the work concern throughout multiple studies, the effects of goals and family members’ relations broadly impact home and workplace stress, tension, and anxiety among employees and family members. Therefore, research should evaluate the possibility of scheduling flexibility to reduce workplace stress and home and family-related stress. Future research could also examine the effects of a flexible schedule that enhances the positive impact of life balance within the work environment and family experiences. A proposed solution could be an educational product that teaches 21st-century homemakers and male contributors how to share responsibilities within the home, organize the home, and establish a system that enables women of the 21st century to accomplish tasks of daily living. These would most likely have a positive impact on a schedule, allowing female homemakers to spend their free time advancing toward personal goals.

Considering the propensity for work-life balance found through the study, the potential effects that goal setting have on owning a business in the 21st century may be advantageous for female homemakers. The question of family members and the immense impact that conflict and family relations have on business and home life deserves further research. Furthermore, future research should examine the importance of entrepreneurial success to train women in various settings regarding organizational skills and self-regulation. Research should focus on a line of products and skills to assist in cueing, goal setting, and goal attainment within the home. These would better prepare women for in-home organization, a healthy work-life balance, and advanced goal setting while living a more productive lifestyle.

Researchers also suggested that mapping out plans for transitioning into and out of parenthood consists of a fair workload among both men and women. Kamp Dush et al. (2018) explained that men might feel that they currently contribute equally or “enough” to a household simply because they participate in the workday. Moreover, men were found to be less concerned with inequalities that enter the non-workdays. Researchers Kamp Dush et al. (2018) suggested that non-workdays are crucial for men and women to prioritize their discussion of self-goal-attainment. Future research should focus on the processes that women in the 21st century home are currently using to complete tasks of daily living and routine maintenance throughout the home. These should then be compared to male contributions in the home to determine if the homemaker’s responsibilities are equal. The ideology that gender roles in the home are more important today than before.

Nevertheless, men engage in over 50% more leisure time than women do every week. Moreover, Cerrato and Cifre (2018) suggested that gender ideology also determines the number of tasks couples split in the home during non-working days. However, household chores and productivity can be generalized among couples with school-age children. A disparity between gender roles and household responsibilities is evident among women in the 21st century home. Future investigative research should consider sociodemographic factors when interpreting results. Additionally, this kind of variable offers a better description of the sample and considers living situations and other specificities.

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